CHAPTER ONE – CANNABIS

Hemp is not just a plant. It can be used to create a wide variety of products including paper, clothing, textiles, animal feed, plastic, and food products. For a substance to be labeled as hemp, it must contain under 0.3% dry weight THC by volume. The compounds found in the hemp plant are useful for a variety of things. Since it is classified as a complete protein, meaning it contains all the essential amino acids needed for proper body functions, hemp is beneficial for one’s health and overall well-being. Another added benefit of the hemp plant is that it grows faster than any shrub or tree, making it an extremely sustainable resource.

For a substance to be classified as marijuana it must contain over 0.3% dry weight of THC by volume. There are many benefits when it comes to using marijuana medicinally since it acts as a pain reliever as well as a muscle relaxant. The body’s natural system for taking in the cannabinoids found in cannabis, such as CBD or THC, is called the endocannabinoid system. 

2.History of Hemp 

Hemp made its way to the global stage in 8000 BCE as it was identified in modern-day Taiwan. Since hemp was discovered so early on, it is considered to be one of the oldest and first crops. Spread throughout the world by human cultivation, hemp was commonly used for paper and textiles(Rätsch,2001). Its medicinal properties were adopted by Chinese healing mechanisms in the ancient “Book of Songs” formally known as the Shijing(Rätsch,2001). Hemp is also known to be beneficial to surrounding vegetation, providing various nutrients to the soil (Rätsch,2001). However, as the twentieth century approached it brought about some challenges concerning the hemp industry. After the Mexican Revolution, the term Marijuana started to receive a poor reputation due to the widespread antisemitism towards immigrants in the United States. Growing tensions surrounding the plant caused the Marijuana Tax Act to be set in place in 1937(O’Connell,2020). This act placed a specific tax on every form of cannabis sales including that of hemp. This deliberately slowed the production and cultivation of hemp as a whole. Fast forward to 1942 when the infamous Henry Ford creates a prototype of a car body out of industrial hemp(O’Connell,2020). The hemp proved to be ten times stronger than traditional steel due to the length of the stem stalks. Hemp stalks prove to be longer than wool or cotton making them much more durable and long-lasting(O’Connell,2020). As World War II intensified and the sources of hemp used for making textiles and other important goods were seized by the Japanese. This pushed the United States Government to educate farmers on the uses of hemp and to once again begin cultivating their own. In support of proving hemp’s uses, a promotional video called “Victory for Hemp” was released to the public in 1942 that explained the need for this prevailing plant especially when it came to the making of ropes and textiles(O’Connell,2020). Even though hemp itself provides so much more to the world than THC, otherwise known as the psychoactive component in cannabis, it still holds some negative connotations. In 1970 the United States Government signed and passed the Controlled Substance Act which classified hemp as a schedule one drug. This meant that cannabis was now looked at the same way as methamphetamine and heroin, classified as highly addictive with no medical use whatsoever(O’Connell,2020). This was such a huge setback for the hemp plant which had just helped pull America through the war. Up until the point of 1998, hemp wasn’t even allowed to be added to food. The oil and seeds are not psychoactive and contain high levels of protein and amino acids which classify them as complete protein. Thankfully in 2014 under the Obama administration, the Farm Bill was signed and put into place. This bill was a step in the right direction for hemp since it allowed establishments of higher education to start studying and growing hemp while also providing a clear definition for industrial hemp. After this, the Farm Bill was signed into act by Former President Donald Trump during his 2018 administration. This bill specifically legalized hemp and any compound therefore derived from hemp itself, removing hemp from the controlled substance act altogether in conjunction with its derivatives. Since this time individual states have started to pass recreational and medical marijuana laws however the federal government still considers marijiana to be a schedule one substance. 

3.The Endocannabinoid System (ECS)

Discovered in 1992 by Lumir Hanis, the endocannabinoid system gives us a better understanding of how the body works and why it functions in specific ways. It is broken down into three major parts: the endocannabinoids themselves, the phytocannabinoids found within the plant, and the CB1 and CB2 receptors found within the body. 

Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring within the body and help to keep it in balanced homeostasis. The most prevalent endocannabinoids are called anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (aka 2-AG). The ECS produces endocannabinoids freely within the body as a natural response to injury or pain. The second component is phytocannabinoids, which are compounds found within the cannabis plant itself, that can be isolated on their own, or combined to produce a more well-rounded effect. Common examples of phytocannabinoids are CBD, CBG, CBN, and THC. 

CB1 receptors are found mainly in the central nervous system and can target specific imbalances in the body including appetite, immune cells, pain perception, short-term memory, and motor skills. When cannabinoids interact with these receptors, relief from certain ailments becomes possible. 

CB2 receptors are found mainly in adipose fat tissue, bones, the cardiovascular system, the immune system, the central nervous system, the respiratory system, the reproductive system as well as the eyes, kidneys, pancreas, and liver. Since cannabis itself is said to be antimicrobial, it’s also a great pathogen fighter which is crucial when preventing and treating infections or diseases.  

Endocannabinoids

There are two types of endocannabinoids found within the body. The first is Anandamide. Anandamide or ANA is a neurotransmitter found most abundantly in the brain. Specific to the memory and motor function sections of the brain, ANA also plays a major part when it comes to nerve cells making short-term connections. Low levels of ANA have been linked to depression and anxiety which is why CBD can be beneficial to those with mental health issues. Anandamide is also naturally found in apples and blackberries.

The second abundant endocannabinoid found in the body is 2- Arachiodonoylglycerol, otherwise known as 2-AG. This compound helps to regulate the central nervous system by binding primarily to the CB2 receptors which have very strong anti-inflammatory properties. A study completed in 2001 concluded that 2-AG is an effective neuroprotectant after trauma to the brain.

4. Understanding cannabinoids 

There are at least 114 cannabinoids that can be found in the cannabis plant. As cannabis plants grow, they produce certain compounds at different ages. Each one of these compounds differs slightly and can be used together or separately to provide an array of effects. The most common is called cannabidiol, otherwise known as CBD. While some may be more familiar with the term THC, there are a lot of other cannabinoids including CBG, CBN, and CBC that can be extremely beneficial in regulating the body’s homeostatic functions. 

Cannabinoids:

4a. CBD 

The naturally occurring phytocannabinoid called cannabidiol, or CBD, provides a variety of benefits due to its interaction with the Endocannabinoid system. After one introduces CBD into the body, it binds with the various CB1 and CB2 receptors located in all of the major systems of the body including respiratory, vascular, immune, and even the digestive system. CBD increases the levels of anandamide, as mentioned before, which is the neurotransmitter responsible for memory and thought. Since CBD binds to both receptors it can help to bring the body back to its natural state. It’s important to note that CBD is also a more powerful antioxidant than vitamins A, C, and E. Meaning it is extremely effective for protecting the body against aging as well as defending the body against harmful free radicals.

4b. CBG

The next phytocannabinoid found in cannabis is called Cannabigerol or CBG. Cannabigerol is considered to be a precursor to cannabinoids. This means all the 112 cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant, start as CBGA or cannabigerol. This is why it is known as the stem cell of cannabis. According to the National Library of Medicine, CBG was also found to be a neuroprotectant in mice since it promotes neurogenesis (the formation of new nerve cells). Cannabigerol is also an effective treatment for fighting any type of gastrointestinal issues due to its anti-inflammatory properties and its ability to bind with CB2 receptors which specialize in gut and immune health.

4c. CBN 

Another phytocannabinoid called Cannabinol, or CBN, is known to be an effective sleep aid as well as an anticonvulsant. CBN is formed through the degradation of the delta-9 THC molecule and is known as the sleepy cannabinoid. Anticonvulsants are extremely beneficial in regulating hyperactivity in the brain. CBN has also been shown to help those struggling with post-operative pain, Crohn’s disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is even more effective when used in combination with THC to enhance the entourage effect. CBN was also tested on strains of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, otherwise known as MRSA. The test concluded CBN was more effective in attacking the bacterium than certain antibiotics. 

4d. CBC 

The next cannabinoid is called cannabichromene or CBC. This compound does not bind to the CB1 and CB2 receptors, instead, it binds to the vanilloid receptor 1 otherwise known as TRPV1, and the ankyrin 1 receptor or for short, TRPA1. These two receptors are both linked to pain receptors, making CBC the perfect candidate for pain management. Studies have also shown CBC being used to reduce acne and aid in regulatory gut functions as well as relief from neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s. 

4e. THC

The next phytocannabinoid is called tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. This cannabinoid is quite different from the other cannabinoids. THC binds to the CB1 and CB2 receptors and is the cannabinoid that is known to make users feel high. There are many reported health benefits to consume THC, including but not limited to pain reduction, increase in appetite, and decreased anxiety. 

It is important to note the chemical structure and the difference between △9-THC (“traditional THC) and △8-THC. 

In recent years, △8-THC has become not only popular but more widely available for consumption. △8-THC is an analog to its more famous sibling, △9-THC, the active component in marijuana that is known to make users feel “high.” The only difference between the two is the placement of the double bond in the molecule, however, this difference significantly impacts the molecule’s ability to interact with CB1 receptors. The binding affinity for △8-THC is about 50-75% less than that of △9-THC, making it equally less potent than its counterpart. Users may still experience a light high from △8-THC products, and consuming △8-THC products could result later in a positive drug test. △8-THC is great for helping users get to sleep and stimulating appetite, and it was found in a study conducted in Jerusalem (make sure this is correct) by a man named Robert Mecholam (also make sure this is correct) that △8-THC was even better at stimulating appetite than △9-THC. 

5.Chemical Composition

5a. Isolate

The composition of an isolated solution is similar to how the word sounds. Isolates are simply isolated from the entire substance. Isolation is the process of extracting only one compound from a group of many. For example, vitamin C is not the only compound that makes up an orange. There are other compounds such as fibers and sugars in the orange, however, if we wanted only vitamin C, we would extract it out and purify it. When we talk about administering CBD into the body, it can come in many forms. Isolates contain only one cannabinoid, this can either be CBD, CBG, CBN, CBC, etc. and means there are no other cannabinoids in the mixture. Any of the cannabinoids can be isolated down through the extraction process which involves decarboxylation (the process of heating a substance) to retain specific compounds. Isolates are a great option for anyone looking to use CBD but who does not want any other trace cannabinoids such as CBG or THC. 

5b. Broad Spectrum

The composition of a broad spectrum mixture is made up of a wider variety of cannabinoids. Unlike the isolated mixture, the broad spectrum solution contains two or more cannabinoids. Often, this means CBD plus one or two other cannabinoids such as CBG or CBN. Broad-spectrum extractions do not contain the THC cannabinoid

5c. Full spectrum 

The composition of a full spectrum product is also quite similar to how it sounds. It is a full-plant extraction – meaning it will contain all the cannabinoids, as well as the THC cannabinoid under the legal limit of 0.3%. This complete mixture tends to be more beneficial because of its entourage effect. This means that since all the cannabinoids are kept together within the solution, which allows the effect of each to compound on each other, providing a wider variety of benefits. 

6.Methods of Consumption

There are a couple of different ways in which a person can use and take CBD oil. Depending upon lifestyle, and personal preference, experimenting with different methods will help one find their best fit. 

6a. Inhalable

One of the most common methods of consumption is smoking, or inhaling CBD. Since the veins in our lungs are the fastest-acting veins in our bodies, we can feel the relief from inhaling CBD almost instantaneously. With that being said, smoking or vaporizing is the fastest way to deliver CBD to your system. Some enjoy the ritualistic aspect of breaking up and rolling hemp flower while others prefer the sleek and discreet look and feel of a concentrated vape pen. While there are downsides and benefits to both, smoking or vaping CBD is a popular administration method.

 6b. Sublingual

The second most common method of consumption is through an oral sublingual. The cannabis oil is infused into a carrier oil such as coconut or MCT oil. The cannabinoid(s) are mixed with the oil which can be measured out by the user based on personal dosage. To use, one would place the oil underneath the tongue and hold for 30 to 60 seconds allowing it to be absorbed into the sublingual veins. Since our sublingual veins are the second fastest-acting veins in our bodies, effects are typically felt within 30 to 45 minutes. 

6c.Ingestible

The next common method of consumption is ingesting CBD. The reactivity time ranges from 60 to 120 minutes depending upon the user’s metabolism, among other factors. The effects typically last longer when it comes to edibles because the properties must break down and be processed through the liver. Ingestibles are a great option for those looking for a more deep restful sleep since the effects continue to be produced throughout the night as the product breaks down. Some bioavailability is lost to the digestive system through this method of consumption.

6d. Topical 

The last method of consumption is a topical solution. These are great for those struggling with muscular and joint pain and inflammation, as well as eczema, acne, and other skin issues. Topicals are not as long-lasting and only work locally. However, when pairing a topical with any method of ingestible CBD, the effects span across the endocannabinoid system within the body, further reducing inflammation both internally and externally.

CHAPTER TWO – KRATOM

1. Defining Kratom

Kratom otherwise known as Mitragyna Speciosa is a shrub-like plant grown abundantly in Southeast Asia that is known for its wide array of benefits. Traditionally dried and crushed into powder form, many take kratom in varying doses to manage chronic pain, boost one’s mood, gain energy, and enhance focus. The active ingredient in kratom is called mitragynine and it acts on the same mu-opioid receptors in the brain that traditional opioids target. For this reason, kratom is popular among those who are looking to curb withdrawal symptoms from traditional opiates. Kratom comes in different strains which directly relate to the location it was grown and the size, shape, and age of the leaves themselves. The three main kratom subcategories are white, green, and red. It is important to note the existence of yellow and gold strains, which we will touch on again later in this chapter. 

2. Uses and forms 

Kratom comes to us in many forms. Most commonly, it is found in its powder form. These are the leaves of the plant, dried and pulverized into a powder. This powder can be consumed as-is or capsulized for a longer-lasting experience. Kratom can also be found in the crushed-leaf form. This is particularly good for those who experience nausea when consuming the powder. The crushed leaves can be capsulized as well, however, it is more common for them to be used to brew kratom tea. 

Consumers now have the option as well to purchase kratom extracts. Kratom extracts are achieved by stripping the kratom of all plant material, leaving mostly just the active alkaloids. Oftentimes, extracts are sold as ratios (i.e. 25:1 being our house kratom extract). Essentially, this means that during preparation, 25 kilograms of regular kratom powder is used to extract 1 kilogram of mitragynine. In other words, our house kratom extract is 25 times stronger than our regular house kratom powder. (GONNA NEED TO REWORD THIS). Extracts can come in the form of capsules, powder, liquid shots, and even edibles and beverages. Caution must be used when consuming extracts, as there are little to no other chemical constituents to moderate the effects of the alkaloids. Consuming kratom extracts daily can be dangerous, and it is advised to limit use. For reference, a typical 3-4 gram dose of kratom powder could contain anywhere from 23.4 to 37.2 milligrams of mitragynine, meanwhile, a single capsule (200 mg) of the extract could contain up to 85 milligrams of mitragynine.

3. Dosing 

For beginners, a good dose is anywhere from 2 – 4 grams of kratom powder. A tablespoon typically weighs out to 3 – 4 grams, however, densities of different kratom strains can vary, therefore it is best to use a scale. Capsules are a convenient way to introduce kratom into your lifestyle. Average kratom capsules contain 0.5 – 0.6 grams of powder, as indicated on the packaging. This makes it easy to control dosing with precision and accuracy without the mess of the scale and powder. Many daily users find the same relief from taking small doses, however, it is possible to develop a tolerance. To prevent building a tolerance, it is advised to rotate through strains. Another noteworthy point is that reds tend to be more potent strains in general, therefore 1 – 2 grams might be a good starting dose. Green strains are more potent than white strains but less potent than reds. White strains tend to be the least potent and may require doses in the 3 – 4 gram range to achieve desired effects.  

For the most part, kratom tends to be a biphasic drug meaning that it works in two phases. At low doses, it is euphoric and energizing, and in higher doses, it becomes sedating. Consuming high doses increases the risk of nausea, especially when consuming the powder as-is. 

4.Strains 

As mentioned earlier, the kratom strains relate directly to where they were grown as well as the size, shape, and age of the leaf itself. They can be broken down into 3 general categories: white, green, and red. 

4a. White Strains 

White strains are produced from the youngest leaves of the kratom plant. These kratom strains are often labeled “white vein,” as the vein of the leaf upon harvest appears white. These strains are going to provide high energy and euphoria and are often good for daytime use. White strains tend to be good anxiolytics, but bad painkillers. 

4b. Green Strains 

Green strains are produced from mid-life kratom leaves. They are often labeled “green vein,” as the vein of the leaf upon harvest appears green in color. Green strains are great introductions to kratom as they provide “the best of both worlds.” Greens tend to be well-rounded strains that provide a little bit of everything kratom has to offer. They are going to be moderate mood boosters, pain relievers, and anxiolytics- relaxing the body and muscles while keeping the brain alert and happy. A great place to start for beginners is the Green Maeng Da. 

4c. Red Strains 

Red strains are produced from the most mature kratom leaves. These are often labeled “red vein,” as the vein of the leaf appears red at the time of harvest. Red strains are going to be the most relaxing, sedating, pain-relieving strains as they’ve developed a high alkaloid concentration over time. Those looking for relief from opiate withdrawals will find the best results in red strains, particularly the Red Borneo. These are excellent night-time strains, as some are great in helping the user get to sleep. 

The second part of the strain name relates the plant to where it was grown or the shape or size of the leaves. Some popular strains are Borneo, Bali, Indo, Malay, and Thai. Respectively, these plants were grown in Borneo, Bali, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. “Horn” strains are named so because the kratom leaf that the strains are produced from is horned at the tips. Because of this, these strains are a bit higher in alkaloids and deliver a bigger punch. Similarly, “elephant” strains are named so because the leaves of this kratom plant are much larger than those of regular kratom plants. Potentially the most popular kratom strains, Maeng Da strains are grown in Thailand and are generally considered the “generic” kratom strain since they deliver a little bit of relief in all aspects that kratom has to offer. 

It is also important to note the availability of yellow and gold strains. Though there is controversy surrounding the methods by which yellow and gold strains are attained, these strains can provide a high amount of euphoria while keeping the body relaxed. Although some believe that the kratom leaves go through a “yellow vein” phase, it is more likely that the yellow and gold strains available are a product of extensive sun-drying and curing of red or white strains. These are also sometimes fermented to achieve the same effect. 

Kratom blends like the Dragon strains are available as well. These are two or more kratom strains mixed to compound the effects of each. 

5. A Word of Caution for kratom 

Since kratom acts on the same neuroreceptors that traditional opioids do, it is possible to develop a dependency with prolonged daily use. Although there is insufficient evidence to prove a direct correlation, some studies suggest that daily use of kratom extracts may increase the risk of seizures (Tatum, William O,2018)(Afzal, Hasnain,2020). Other side effects of prolonged daily kratom use include decreased gastrointestinal mobility and decreased libido. Some suggest that daily kratom use can increase cholesterol levels, leading to eventual liver damage, however a recent independent study conducted in Malaysia found that daily kratom users had lower LDL levels than their non-user counterparts (Leong Bin Abdullah, Mohammad Farris Iman,2020).

Standard 5-panel drug screenings will not test for kratom’s active alkaloids or their metabolites. However, a recent study suggests that consuming kratom can result in false positives on drug tests for methadone and its metabolite EDDP(Pierre, Christina,2020). More research is required to say with certainty whether kratom will result in positive drug tests for methadone and its metabolite under all circumstances. There is a specific test that will test for kratom’s alkaloids and metabolites- the 10-panel drug screening. With this test, kratom is detectable in blood or urine for up to 7 days, depending on a variety of factors including the person’s body weight and metabolism (Kraoma,2021).  

While it is not a schedule I drug, the DEA recognizes the dangers of kratom. In 2016, the DEA sought to classify the substance as a Schedule I drug, however, after multiple complaints, they chose to reverse their decision (Garden State Treatment Center,2021). Not all states have accepted the legality of kratom as a substance. The following states have banned kratom: Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin. Other states have tried passing bills to ban kratom to no avail, and some counties in certain states like Sarasota, FL, have banned kratom despite it being legal for possession and consumption in the rest of the state (Kraoma,2021).

CHAPTER THREE – KAVA 

1.Defining Kava 

Kava, also known as Piper Methysticum is a naturally occurring botanical located in the South Pacific island regions, including Hawaii. It is known by many different names amongst different pacific islanders. Although there is some discrepancy, it is believed that the plant originated in Vanuatu and was spread through the south pacific islands by travelers. It is propagated vegetatively and is incapable of self-reproducing as it does not produce fruit. Therefore, human cultivation plays a key role in the continuation of the species. It is believed that the P. methysticum that we know has kava today is a plant that was selectively bred and eventually became its own species over time. Piper wichmanii is the wild type of kava that is capable of self-reproduction and that of which P. methysticum was domesticated. The two plants are remarkably similar, so much so that some scientists have a hard time distinguishing the two. Traditionally, the plant’s roots were masticated or ground down into a powder, where they could then be brewed into tea. Many enjoy the social aspect of gathering with others to drink kava. It promotes an elevated mood and bubbly spirit, making it perfect for consumption in a group setting. Some people prefer kava to alcohol since kava provides a fun environment without the nasty side effects the next day, and kava is often advertised as an alcohol alternative. The active alkaloids present in kava that are responsible for its anxiolytic and mood-enhancing properties are called kavalactones. The kavalactones are most concentrated in the rootstock, particularly the lateral roots (as opposed to the crown root). The vegetative part of the plant is known to contain many toxins, and therefore only the root should be used to prepare kava tea. There are eighteen different kavalactones, however, 6 main kavalactones make up over 96% of those found in kava. These kavalactones are yangonin, desmethoxyyangonin, methysticin, kavain, dihydromethysticin, and dihydrokavain. The kavalactones are represented in a kava’s chemotype, which will be different in each strain and helps us determine whether kava will be considered heady, heavy, or balanced. Kavalactones on their own have little to no psychological or physical benefit. The efficacy of kava comes from the synergy of all kavalactones together in a solution (BOOK). Each kavalactone was given a number by Dr. Vincent Lebot, a respected and revered scientist and expert on kava. A kava chemotype is a 6-digit number that relates to the kavalactones present in the strain. The first number represents the kavalactone present in the highest concentration, and the last number represents the kavalactone with the lowest concentration. 

Table 3.1 outlines the different kavalactones, their respective number, and a bit about how each contributes to the overall synergy of the kavalactones. These chemotypes can be useful to help us determine the overall effects the kava will have, and if it will be considered a heavy, heady, or balanced strain. The table, however, is not an exact science, and as mentioned before, isolated kavalactones have little to no psychological or physical benefits. Kavalactones are synergistic and have the potential to change or negate the effects of other kavalactones. For example, many kava’s contain dihydrokavain (DHK) as one of the first three of their chemotype. Dihydrokavain is notorious for making people feel nauseous, however, the nausea is typically negated by the effects of the other kavalactones present in high concentrations. 

Table 3.1: The 6 most relevant kavalactones, their respective numbers, and their contribution to the synergy of kavalactones. Taken from https://kavaguides.com/kavalactones/. 

1a.Heady kava: 

Heady kavas provide a highly cerebral effect. These are social, mood-enhancing kavas and are great for daytime use. Typically, kavas beginning with 4 or 6 in their chemotype is desirable as heady kava’s since kavain and methysticin are responsible for the euphoric and neuroprotective properties that kava has to offer. Hawaiian kavas often begin with 46 or 64 in their chemotype and are considered great heady kavas (2). 

1b. Heavy Kava: 

Heavy kavas provide a strong sedative effect on the body. Heavy kavas will make the body relaxed and stress-free, like one, is melting into the couch or bed. Great nighttime strains as they are also great to sleep aids. Kavas with 1 and 2 in the first 3 numbers of their chemotype is considered heavy as DMY and DHK are responsible for the muscle relaxant and sedative properties that kava has to offer. Often, kavain is included in these strains to help balance out the intense sedative effects of DHK. Many kavas that come from Vanuatu are considered heavy as they contain 2 in the first 3 numbers of their chemotype. 

1c.Balanced Kava: 

balanced kavas provide the best of both worlds and are exactly as they sound- balanced. The kavalactone content of these is more sporadic and harder to predict, however, most popular balanced strains contain 4, 2, and 6 as the first 3 numbers of their chemotype. 

It is important to note here as well that kavas beginning with 25 or 52 are considered highly undesirable, as those two are the kavalactones responsible for the less desirable effects kava can have such as nausea/vomiting and dizziness. Strains beginning with “52” or “25” are considered “Tudei” kava by the people of Vanuatu, as the heavy body effects of DHM and DHK leave the user feeling intoxicated for two days. 

Subsequently, the wide array of kava chemotypes can be generalized into morphotypes. The term morphotype is used to categorize individuals in a species that exhibit similar morphological characteristics. It was found that, even though plants can have the same genetics and chemotype, they exhibit different morphology. All kava morphotypes belong to one of nine convars, A-I. Chemotypes A-D, exclusive to Melanesia, are all forms of P. Wichmanii and have low kavain content. Groups A and B can be cultivated in Vanuatu and Baluan and have high concentrations of DHM/DHK and demethoxy-yangonin, respectively, and low proportions of kavain. Group C only contains one cultivar that can be grown in Papua New Guinea, and exhibits high DHK and DHM levels. Chemotype D has roughly the same proportions of DHK, DHM, and methysticin, with very little kavain. These chemotypes are highly undesirable due to their high levels of DHM and DHK. 

Chemotype groups E-I occur only in cultivars of P. methysticum. Chemotypes in group E can be found in Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, Hawai’i, Tonga, Marquesas, and the Carolines produce heave body effects, as they are high in DHM and DHK. Chemotypes in group F are distributed exclusively in Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea, and all cultivars in Papua New Guinea exhibit this unique chemotype. These cultivars are also high in DHM and DHK and are very undesirable strains, unusable for daily consumption. Chemotypes in groups G, H, and I are distributed through Polynesia, Vanuatu, and Fiji and are high in kavain, These are the most popular blends. 

Kava has what is known as a reverse tolerance. This means that the more you take kava, the more you will feel the effects over time. In other words, an experienced kava consumer might need to take 1/10th of the amount of kava that a new user would to achieve the same results. Many compare this tolerance to a big brick wall, and every time you take kava is like hammering away at the wall. Eventually, just one whack of the hammer will do the trick! It is also important to note that kava works as a mild local anesthetic, and so drinking kava tea will have a mouth-numbing effect. 

1. Uses 

Kava is a psychoactive substance and can boost one’s mood and promote a social atmosphere. Traditionally, kava was consumed ceremonially and socially due to its ability to lessen social anxieties. Kava also acts as a muscle relaxant and local analgesia. 

1. Methods of Consumption
   1. Kava capsules- Capsulized kava is the best way for beginners to start taking kava! Dosage is already measured out. Kava pills do not contain the ground root itself but instead, contain extracted kavalactones. 
   2. Kava tea- it is possible to brew a tea from the kava root. To do so, place kava in a strainer bag or ball in a cup with warm water. Steep and shake to extract the kavalactones from the root powder. Straining is very important, as the root powder is indigestible for humans and can lead to nausea and emesis if consumed. 
   3. It is important to note the availability of both instant and micronized kava. Instant kava is made through a brewing process where the root powder is used to make tea. The tea is then dehydrated to leave the kavalactones behind. Instant kava is convenient for those who do not wish to spend time brewing kava, as it is ready to place into water or juice and consumed as-is. The trade-off is that instant kava is more expensive than traditional root powder since the preparation process is much lengthier. Micronized kava falls somewhere in between traditional and instant kava and is shrouded by some controversy. Micronized kava is the traditional root powder ground down into a very fine, pulverized powder. The idea is that since the root is ground so fine, it is easier on the body and can pass through our digestive system without actually needing to be digested. Micronized kava powder is treated the same way instant kava is in the sense that it can be added to juice or water and consumed as-is, however, there is a greater chance for unwanted side effects this way. 
   4. Mention kava tinctures?

Kava’s Physiology in the Body 

Kavalactones act primarily on the brain’s GABA receptors, increasing the uptake of GABA by our neurons. Gamma-aminobutyric acid, otherwise known as GABA, is the body’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Our brains maintain a perfect balance between GABA and glutamate, the body’s main excitatory neurotransmitter. With too much glutamate, seizures can occur, and with too much GABA, comas can occur. When our bodies are out of balance and GABA levels are low, it can lead to elevated levels of anxiety, stress, and depression. Kavalactones act by increasing the binding potential of GABA to its receptors in the brain. For this reason, kava can be a good supplement for those who are experiencing stress and anxiety and are looking for a natural approach to medicine. 

Kavalactones also exhibit the ability to regulate voltage-gated ion channels in our body, particularly the sodium-potassium ion channel which is essential to muscle contraction. Kavalactones have a blockade effect on these channels, in turn blocking muscle contractions and tension. This is the physiological process that allows the body to relax and unwind when kava is consumed. 

Kava’s overall inhibitory effect on the body and the central nervous system tends to its relaxing and sedation properties and can explain why ataxia and slurred speech can occur upon overconsumption. 

It is speculated that there may be some interactions between kavalactones and the endocannabinoid system. According to a ___ study conducted by _____ in _____, yangonin was found to have weak interactions at the CB1 receptor when compared to delta-9 THC. While it is insufficient evidence to determine an established interaction, it is sufficient evidence for further investigation on the topic. 

1.  A Word of Caution on Kava 

While kava has many health benefits, it is also of slight concern. Many countries banned kava for some time after speculated liver issues that kava may cause. Additionally, on March 25, 2002, the FDA issued a consumer advisory on supplements containing kava. The FDA reported that in over 25 cases, kava-containing products have been associated with liver-related injuries such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver failure (https://ods.od.nih.gov/HealthInformation/kava.aspx). 

1. Our Natural Life Brew Recipe 

 CHAPTER FOUR- KANNA 

1.Definition and History 

The term Kanna refers to the succulent shrub native to the South African region. The more scientific name is known as Sceletium Tortuosum. One of the oldest reported uses of Kanna was in 1662 during a trade fair of farmers who found it provided relief from work fatigue, as well as satiation for hunger and thirst (Smith,1996). Natives would chew on the plant at first but later found that wrapping up the roots and leaves in sheepskins further enhanced the alkaloids. Mesembrine is one of the three alkaloids found in Kanna that interacts with the body’s innate serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRI’S). The other two alkaloids are Mesembrenone and Mesembrenol and they also promote the brain’s ability to operate with smaller levels of natural serotonin. The process itself mimics the structure of common antidepressants (Smith,1996). This means Kanna is psychotropic and takes effect on one’s body by changing specific parts of the nervous system that result in elevated perception, mood, cognition, and even behavior. In 2012 Kanna entered the medical market as it was incorporated with the drug Zembrin (NP;, Harvey AL;Young LC;Viljoen AM;Gericke,2011) Because Kanna has those serotonin reuptake inhibitors when combined with other compounds it creates that compound Zembrin. Typically, Zembrin is used to treat anxiety-related disorders. 

2. Uses

Some of the most common uses of Kanna start with its ability to decrease levels of stress and anxiety associated with mood and physical pain. Others use it as an appetite suppressant. Overall it can be used to provide an elevated mood while relieving feelings of discomfort.

3. Methods of Consumption

There are many methods of consuming Kanna. Creating tea is one of the most common methods (See our brew recipe below). Teas are effective in around one hour to an hour and a half. However, smoking is considered to be the fastest method due to the veins directly located on the lungs. The start recommended dose is 50 mg which will provide elevated mood as well as appetite suppression. The medium dosage is around 100-250 mg. One should not exceed 500 mg when taking Kanna for many safety reasons. Another method is consuming the plant through a sublingual. This is a solution placed under the tongue, and after 30 seconds of holding the mixture there, one should swallow and feel the effects within 30 to 45 minutes. The starting dose is considered to be 50 to 150mg and 200 to 400 mg is a medium dose.

CHAPTER FIVE – FUNGI

1. What is Fungi?

Fleshy fungi also known as medicinal mushrooms are considered to be the ecosystem’s best recyclers because they engulf and regenerate nutrients from surrounding vegetation and insects(Stamets,2000). Fungi found their place on earth around 1.3 billion years ago as the first living organisms to inhabit the planet(Stamets,2000). Plants and greenery arrived several hundred million years later. Essentially the mycelium triggered the development and growth of what we now know today as plants. This came about due to a chemical process that naturally occurs. The fungi start secreting oxalic acids that pull calcium from nearby rocks further breaking them down and escalating the development of soil(Stamets,2000). After the asteroid hit earth sixty-five million years ago, it wiped out most life forms. The debris that surfaced after the impact covered light from reaching the earth’s surface. Fungi began its peak growth phase since it does not thrive off sunlight like most plants. Instead, fungi use radiation as their source of energy. During this dark time on earth, the organisms that allowed themselves to be engulfed by the fungi flourished. At one point there were mushrooms on earth so vast in size they reached twenty feet high and a yard wide. This species was called Prototaxites and its fossils can be found in Saudi Arabia (Stamets,2000). This incredible quote breaking down the composition of mycelium states “Most mushrooms are composed of around 90% water by weight. The remaining 10% consists of 10–40% protein, 2–8% fat, 3–28% carbohydrate, 3–32% fiber, 8–10% ash, and some vitamins and minerals, with potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, iron, zinc, and copper accounting for most of the mineral content (Borchers et al. 1999)” (Wachtel-Galor,1970)

(Zooillogix, 2007)

Mycelium is so common in nature, that per cubic inch of soil at least over a mile of cells is flourishing (Stamets,2000). Fungi as a whole, from the stem to the spores can be used for their vast amount of essential minerals. Some of the most common mushrooms include Ganoderma Lucidium, Hieracium Erinaceus, Cordyceps Sinensis, and Trametes Versicolor. The benefits differ based on the species of fungi, however, these botanicals are known to benefit the natural operational systems in the body.

1. Reishi

Ganoderma Lucidum is also known as Reishi, is similar to adaptogens such as ashwagandha. Reishi is a wonderful substance for managing stressors in the body. These sizable fungi hold a deep orange and brown hue that is covered by a slick sheen. The term lucidius translates to brilliant or shiny in the Latin language. The properties that give reishi its significance as well as interact with the human physique are called beta-glucans. These molecules are located in the depths of the cell walls of living organisms. Known as immunomodulators (functions decreasing inflammatory responses),beta-glucans help to improve the immune system and overall reduce inflammation.

Reishi is also a hepatoprotectant, meaning it aids in preserving and averting damage to the liver. It also helps aid in a process known as bacteriostasis, a bodily function that regulates the development and spread of bacteria(Wachtel-Galor,1970). In ancient Chinese medicine, reishi is known as Lingzhi which means herb of spiritual significance (Benzie,2011). However, humanity’s first use of mushrooms stems back to ancient Greece, Mesopotamia, and India. As coveted as they were at the time, in most cultures they were only consumed by nobility and royalty(Wachtel-Galor,1970). Egyptians specifically started this tradition as a way to ascend their minds after passing on. The Pharaohs would consume the mushrooms throughout their lives and sometimes even be buried with them. This gave reishi and other mushrooms the nickname “Medicine of Kings”(Wachtel-Galor,1970). It is believed they took on this alias due to their large number of vital minerals that can be extracted from all parts of the fungi including spores, and mycelia. The polysaccharides and triterpenes cultivated in the natural growth process of the plant, are another beneficial component that seems to give mushrooms their great reputation(Wachtel-Galor,1970). It is critical to note that all mushrooms, not just reishi, are extremely rich in bioactive molecules. Examples of such include terpenoids, phenols, steroids, and nucleotides(Wachtel-Galor,1970). Mushroom proteins also contain two key amino acids, Lysine and Leucine, that the human body does not naturally produce on its own. This is why having a diet rich in amino acids or supplementing with mushrooms such as reishi can be extremely beneficial. 

3.Lions Mane

Traditionally known as Hericium Erinaceus, the lion’s mane grows plentifully on decaying and dead trees most commonly in North America, Europe, and Asia. (Davis,2019). This nutraceutical (a substance having mental benefits which protect from disease) is composed of a wide array of nutrients. These essential compounds provide benefits to the major five organs: lungs, heart, liver, kidney, and spleen. Used primarily to provide restorative energy and increase the body’s defenses against disease and stress, the lion’s mane is a powerful substance. Two specific compounds give lion’s mane its reputation. They are known as Hericenones and Erinacines and they stimulate nerve growth factors(Lai, Puei-Lene, et al., 2013). These NGF’s, after being extracted and studied, showed to be crucial when it comes to regulating the basal forebrain system. This system is important because it is responsible for producing acetylcholine, a chemical needed for many functions in the brain and body especially in regulating the health of the brain itself. Acetylcholine is also necessary for the learning and memory functions of the brain. This is why lion’s mane has been notorious for recollection of memory. One example of this is shown in a trial where mice were “injected with neurotoxic peptides in an experiment to assess the effects of lion’s mane on the type of amyloid plaque formation seen in Alzheimer’s patients (Paul Stamets)”. The mice then completed a Y maze and were tested and separated based on who was receiving the lion’s mane supplements vs the ones that were not. The results showed that the mice that were receiving the diet with Hericium and Erinaceus, performed with greater results when completing the memory maze than their counter group(Paul Stamets). This isn’t the only property that this fungus processes. Not only does it stimulate the Nerve Growth factors, but it also stimulates the BDNF produced in the brain and body. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is one of the growth hormones similar to NGF’s. These neurotrophics prevent cells from entering the decaying process as well as stimulate the growth of new and existing cells (Wakkojono,2018). Another study showed that this fungus is also believed to aid in the damage from amyloid-beta plaque. This plaque is what typically accumulates in the brains of those suffering from Alzheimer’s. Vast improvements were seen in elderly people who were consuming 3 grams of powdered Hieracium Erinaceus daily for four months. The daily dose is around 1000mg one to two times daily and it can be consumed raw, cooked, dried, or steeped in a drink (according to our nine-mile botanicals brand- do we keep this in here or not?). Lion’s mane was also shown to help increase the function of the hippocampus which has been shown to aid those suffering from anxiety and depression. Since it reduces inflammation it’s a wonderful anxiolytic and has also been shown to increase the intestinal immune system which in turn protects against pathogens that could enter the nose, mouth, or gut. For instance, a study showed the mice injected with the bacteria salmonella were able to increase their life span after supplementing with lion’s mane (Popov, 2020). 

4.Cordyceps 

The botanical cordyceps sinensis, otherwise known as cordyceps is one of the common medical mushrooms. This parasitic fungus is found predominantly in the Himalayan mountains at around 3,700 feet or higher (Sayner,2021). The cultivation and propagation of cordyceps are extremely unique due to their ability to regenerate from these heights. Fungi attach themselves to any “host” or small living beings like a caterpillar or a larva. After the spores attach to the being the fungi chemically interacts with the hosts’ mind, propelling it to climb to heights ranging from 3,000 to 3,700 feet. After ascending the host stays in place until it eventually dies. After its death, the spores of the fungi will slowly emerge from the top of the head of those hosts (Sayner,2021). After the emerging wind and other natural forces encourage the spread of the spores. This is why the height of the insect matters. Incredibly at any point, the fungi could quite literally engulf the host but instead, it works with the host to propagate itself. Considered a nucleoside, this mushroom contains key properties needed for the synthesis of RNA and DNA within the body (Mehra,2017). Studies on boars and rats have also shown that cordyceps militaris enhance the testosterone levels which in turn increases the sperm counts of these animals. Similarly, it is thought to have a similar effect on human males (Mehra,2017). The compounds that bring cordyceps to the forefront of medicinal mushrooms are its components called polysaccharides and cordycepin (Mehra,2017). An article according to the Wiley online library states that this incredible fungus possesses traits that include: anti-tumoral, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, antimetastatic, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory effects.

(Mehra,2017)

“It is well known for its nucleoside, cordycepin (3′-de-oxyadenosine) and its derivatives, ergosterol, polysaccharides, glycoprotein and peptides containing α-aminoisobutyric acid. Polysaccharides and cordycepin present in C militaris account for the anti-inflammatory antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-metastatic, immunomodulatory (Das et al., 2010), hypoglycaemic, steroidogenic and hypolipidemic effects (Wang et al., 2014). Its biological activity includes antitumor (Le e e t a l. , 2 0 1 5 ), a n ti-me t a st a ti c , immunomodulatory, antioxidant (Ma et al., 2012), anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, antimicrobial, hypolipidemic (Mizuno et al., 1999), hypoglycaemic (Ma et al., 2015), anti-aging, neuroprotective, and renoprotective properties (Patel et al., 2013). 

5. Turkey Tail

This colorful and abundant fungus known as Trametes Versicolor is grown in woodsy environments and contains many beneficial properties to our health. Like most fungus, the turkey tail contributes to the ecosystem by acting as a recycler (Hobbs). This means that as fungi grow and develop they overtake the decaying or dying materials around themselves. They do so by engulfing them in their growth cycles (Dr.Dov,2020). Eventually, the plant materials are returned to the soil adding further nutrients and continuing the fertile growth of the rest of the ecosystem. However, Dr.Dov Pine explains there is more to turkey tail than its positive impact on the environment. As Trametes Versicolor was studied more thoroughly, its popularity in the cancer research field transpired. The compounds known as PSP (polysaccharopeptide) PSK (polysaccharide-k) were studied on three different levels to see how they interacted with cancer cells in the body (Dr.Dov,2020). The conclusions showed that the turkey tail inspired the immune system to “wake up” and identify harmful cells. This in turn stimulates the body and its natural defense process making it easier to fight off. Turkey tail was also shown to trigger the downregulation response(Dr. Dov,2020). This means it has defense and offense mechanisms against toxic cells. Lastly, the turkey tail showed its ability to preserve red and white blood cells. During any type of cancer treatment (radiation or chemotherapy) these cells are depleted drastically causing one to be susceptible to further infections and illness(Dr. Dov,2020). Turkey tail helps to preserve these cells within the body, retaining the immune protectant properties necessary to survival. It can be noted that PSP (polysaccharopeptide) has also been shown to boost the levels of good bacteria in the gut such as bifidobacterium spp. This leads many to believe the turkey tail is a great aid in gastrointestinal symptoms(Dr.Dov,2020). Another wonderful property of trametes versicolor is its ability to fight off osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is essentially the loss of bone density in the body. The study showed that turkey tail, as well as maitake mushrooms, help to prevent bone resorption (osteoclast activity). The shitake mushrooms stimulated new bone mineralization.

CHAPTER SIX- SUPPLEMENTS 

Add a disclaimer here to consult a licensed doctor before taking any specific supplements or adding them to your lifestyle

1. Supplements

Supplements are the foundation of almost every ayurvedic medicinal practice and have been used for centuries to aid in relief from common ailments as well as act as a preventative measure to disease. They are most commonly defined as components extracted or found within or of a plant or substance that can be beneficial to the body. Some supplements are more important to take than others since the diet sometimes doesn’t deliver all of the essential nutrients needed. However, since supplements are intended to make up for lacking areas of the diet, they can not be said to solely cure, treat, or prevent any ailment or disease. According to the Journal of Nutrition, many people begin taking supplements for two reasons: to act as preventative measures against diseases or to alleviate symptoms of disease and illness (Wargovich,2001). 

1a. Ashwagandha 

The herb Ashwagandha otherwise known as Withania Somnifera is a popular ayurvedic medicinal used to cultivate anti-stress as well as anti-inflammatory properties (Singh Narendra,2011). It can also be referred to as Winter Cherry since it does belong to the nightshade family of plants. It has also been shown to be adaptogenic, meaning it can aid the body in fighting off physical, mental, biological, and chemical stressors. The continued use of the herb across centuries in ancient China and traditional Indian medicine has shown to be long-term support of joint health, as well as a sleep aid, a stress aid, and even aids in the reproductive and sexual health of adults(Singh Narendra,2011). Further research also found that ashwagandha helps to facilitate the body’s natural protection against disease by boosting the cell-mediated immunity response(Singh Narendra,2011). Therefore, one would think ashwagandha can be beneficial to those with a weaker immune system, such as autoimmune diseases. However, it is important to note that it activates the immune system of those with those ailments, negatively. Conversely, if one is not suffering from an autoimmune disease it can aid in the cell-mediated immunity properties discussed before. According to The Journal of Complementary and Integrated Medicine, a study was done with rats treated in three main doses with the herb. At the end of the twenty days, the results showed that the herb portrayed an antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory response (Khan Mahmood Ahmad,2015). There is an array of benefits that ashwagandha can provide to both males and females. In a study conducted on infertile males, seventy-five started taking five grams of ashwagandha each day, and 14% has increased fertility (The Art of Living Retreat Center, 2020). Also, aids in memory retention, controlling inflammation, and regulating blood sugar. Another study was done to test its immune system boosting properties. In these two human pilot studies, the dosage of ashwagandha was put into tea and was found to be more beneficial for increasing the NK cell activity. This means it was able to facilitate the natural killer response that our cells should be functioning at (Edwards,2015). Ashwagandha was studied in cancer patients and was found to help reduce overall body fatigue. They administered two grams every eight hours during the chemotherapy treatments. At the end of this study, symptoms of fatigue were reduced in seven out of the eighteen individuals( Edwards,2105). One of the most common methods of consuming ashwagandha is through a capsule. The capsule can be solely ashwagandha or it can be blended with other supplements and or adaptogens. The use of root powder is also a common method. Many find adding it to smoothies or creating a tea out of it, is a beneficial hands-on way. The dosage is three to six grams of the root powder (Edwards,2015). A note of caution: Ashwagandha should not be sued if you are pregnant or breastfeeding. The immunomodulatory effects also make this supplement something to stay away from if you have multiple sclerosis, lupus, or other autoimmune diseases as mentioned above (Edwards,2015)

2a. Ginseng 

This ancient root otherwise known as Panax Ginseng is native to the North American region and extremely beneficial to the body. Known as the “King Herb” in Ancient Chinese Medicine, it is also considered a natural nootropic (see nootropic section in this book pg ____ to learn more about nootropics) (Suliman, Noor Azui,2016). There are two types of Ginseng: American and Asain. The American version tends to be a more relaxing and soothing experience while the Asian form is more stimulating and awakening (Edwards, 2015). The most active component in ginseng is ginsenosides( American Family Physician, 2003). Broken down into two groups known as panaxadiol, and panaxatriol (Suliman, Noor Azui,2016). Over 150 have been identified and they work with the body to enhance the process of phagocytosis (Edwards.2015). Phagocytosis is the action of cells dissolving or consuming other cells that are foreign to the body, aged in some way, or pose a threat to immune health. This is why ginseng can be beneficial to the body’s major airways during a cold or flu (National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health,2020). These two properties in ginseng also increase the neurotransmitters that are occurring in the brain, allowing for better cognition (Suliman, Noor Azui,2016).  A study also showed that doses of one thousand to two thousand milligrams a day for cancer patients helped to improve muscle and body fatigue (Edwards,2105). Natural medicines Comprehensive Database conducted a study on patients with type two diabetes. The study showed that taking ginseng two hours before a meal could lower the patient’s blood sugar after the meal. Another study showed that taking anywhere from 200 mg to 400 mg per day during cold and flu season for approximately three to six months would decrease the risk of sickness (National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health,2020). Another study also showed that when ginseng was administered to healthy individuals, their overall cognition and memory performance increased (Suliman, Noor Azui,2016).  The dose of daily dried root powered is 0.5-2 grams (Edwards,2015).

3a. Turmeric 

Turmeric otherwise known as Curcuma Longa is appreciated and used not only for its distinct flavor and scent but also for its variety of health benefits. According to the Indian Journal of Dental Research Turmeric is antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, and is a strong antioxidant (TP Chaturvedi,2009). Turmeric can be used topically and orally. Topically it can be used to treat ulcers by cleansing and disinfecting the skin as well as other topical ailments such as acne due to its nondrying properties. Orally it can be used for various issues including bloating, indigestion, loss of appetite, and even jaundice (TP Chaturvedi,2009). The turmeric root itself is known to be antiseptic as well as aromatic. It is also known to protect against free radical damage within the body. In ancient cultures, bright orange powder was popularly used as a textile die. Incorporating Turmeric into the diet when cooking or as a supplement is a great way to reduce inflammation overall. A study from the Integrated Cancer Therapies showed the benefits of turmeric for those undergoing radiation-induced oral mucositis in structured clinical trials. Specifically, these neck and head patients used a solution of a dissolved turmeric capsule around 400 mg in 80 ml of boiling water that had been cooled (Rao,2014). The study concluded that as a whole the turmeric solution proved to be even more effective than the previous treatment that was commonly used. The povidone-iodine solution that is typically used, was shown to be less effective in reducing inflammation (Chainani-Wu,2004). Curcumin was administered to healthy adults from ages forty to sixty. The study showed that an eighty-milligram dose per day started to show health benefits including that of raising the salivary radical scavenging capacities, along with multiple other benefits including that of increasing plasma nitric oxide (Edwards,2015). Also known to modulate multiple signaling pathways which help to regulate transcription factors as well as other functions such as growth factors,cytokines, enzymes and kinases that are critical intracellular compounds (Edwards,2015).This means Turmeric is also one of the properties along with red grapes and green tea that have been evaluated in animal carcinogenesis systems with interesting results. Due to their anti-inflammatory, and antimutagenic properties, they are shown to be effective in preventing symptoms. The effective compound creating these properties is called polyphenols (Wargovich,2001). The dosage for adults of the powdered form of the herbal supplement would be 1.5-3 grams daily (Edwards,2015).

4a. Aloe Vera 

Aloe Vera is also known as A. Barbadensis,  more commonly known as a houseplant, has many benefits that it can provide. Its earliest documented use was in 1750 B.C.E for pharmaceutical needs. The potency of the plant is found in its aloins- the bitter green juice of the plant, the gel which is extracted from the internal parts (Edwards, 2015).After the liquid is extracted and dries, it is turned into a powder. The leaves themselves are 99.5% water and contain high levels of a compound known as Lectin. Lectin has been shown to aid in decreasing inflammation, specifically when combined with glycoproteins (molecules composed of proteins) already existing in the body. Aloe contains lignins, which help it to penetrate deeper into the skin. Lignins are known for their anti-aging benefits to making aloe a great topical treatment for dry skin. According to Penn Medicine MD Manasija Rath, the anti-inflammatory properties can soothe cold sores due to the cell regenerating compounds, and aid in the reduction of swelling (Manasija Rath MD, 2020). Aloe was also found to be an aid in calming the skin of second and third degree burns(edwards,2015). Since the juice is extremely antibacterial it was also found to be bacteriostatic against many viruses such as staphylococcus aureus. The juice also contains latex, which is a huge aid in that backed-up feeling associated with constipation (Manasija Rath MD, 2020). It has also been noted in a couple of small double-blind studies, that aloe may aid in the lowering of blood glucose levels and lipid levels in diabetic patients with metabolic syndrome (Edwards,2015).Overall aloe is beneficial topically for any type of skin irritation and internally for its anti-constipation and antiviral benefits. It should be noted however long-term extensive daily use may cause inflammation to the liver (Edwards,2015). 

5a. Tongkat Ali 

Tongkat Ali otherwise known as Eurycoma Longifolia Jack, is a medicinal plant found in Southeast Asia. Many refer to it as Malaysian ginseng since the effects are similar. Commonly known as a tonic, meaning it is taken for restoring vitality, energy, and balance. It is well known as a sexual performance enhancer and a great energy boost for athletes (Edwards,2015). Traditionally it was used for its anti-aging properties but it also gained popularity for its aphrodisiac benefits. It has also been shown to be beneficial for those wanting to increase their natural libido and regain a feeling of balance hormonally. A study double-blind 12-week study was done in men to test the effectiveness in ages 30 to 55. These 109 men were given a placebo or a 300mg dose of Tongkat Ali in water. This specific study showed that there was an improvement of the group after evaluating them physically and through the questionnaire (SHQ), which showed a 44.4% increase in sperm motility as well as a 14% increase in libido (Edwards,2015). Since it also aids in keeping the body’s cortisol levels low, it is recommended for athletes to use and anyone who is dealing with high stress. A study from the International Journal Society of Sports Nutrition showed that taking Tongkat Ali daily improves the stress hormone profile in the body as well as certain mood parameters. 

6a. Moringa 

 Moringa, otherwise known as Moringa Oleifera, is a tree shrub that originated in India. Its first known usage was around the first century A.D. where it was used medicinally. This tropical tree grows abundantly and propagates easily since it is quite low maintenance (N, Foidl,2001). The plant contains the roots, branches, leaves, and stems that can be used for a variety of day-to-day ailments. Dr. Martin Price found that by administering a 100gram portion of the leaves to a woman breastfeeding, and a pregnant woman, they reached over a third of the daily calcium levels (Price,2007). During the plant’s youngest stage, the leaves can be used in many food dishes such as soups and salads. This provides a great source of vitamin B and essential amino acids. As the plant continues to mature, the oil found in the seeds can be used as a cooking tool or even in the industrial world on heavy machinery. Research also showed that the 4 isothiocyanate compound that is found in seed oil proves to be an excellent antimicrobial. This is why in the first century Moringa was primarily used as a medicinal tool, especially by the first peoples. The chemical structure of moringa oil contains oleic acid. This compound is known as monounsaturated fat and provides many cardiovascular benefits. According to the United States Natural Library of Medicine, the National Institute of Health stated that Moringa can help reduce cholesterol and help to prevent breast cancer (Muhammad, 2016) Starting dose is 600mg and it can be taken up to 5 times a day (nine-mile botanicals recommendation) BIOMASA found that the moringa leaf extract contains a compound known as Zeatin, which is a plant growth hormone. This means that moringa leaf extract can be juiced, and then sprayed onto many other crops. Onions, bell peppers, melon, teas, soya, and coffee are all examples of vegetation that benefit from its nutrients (Price, 2007). It should be noted other fertilizers and basic care instructions per plant must be met as well to see proper growth. 

7a. Akuamma 

Harvested in West Africa and typically grown in tropical climates, Picralima Nitida, has been used medicinally for a various number of health-related ailments. The compounds that allow akuamma to be so beneficial are called alkaloids, which play a large role in the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-fever, and hypoglycemic benefits associated with the plant (Erharuyi, Osayemwenre, 2014). Traditionally it was also used in regions such as Ghana, Africa, and along the ivory coast to ease the symptoms of otitis (an inflammatory ear disease) as well as pulmonary bronchitis and other venereal diseases (Solomon I.P, 2014). In Ghana specifically, a local hospital started to construct a capsule form of akuamma for patients suffering from malaria. The capsules contained the pulverized akuamma seed powder at a 250 mg concentration and were marketed under the name “picap capsules”(Solomon I.P, 2014).

8a. Blue Lotus 

The Blue Lotus flower otherwise known as Nymphea Caerulea, is an ancient water lily native to Egypt (Justin Poklis,2017).  The petals are most commonly consumed in a bright blue and purple colored tea but can be taken in capsule form as well. This botanical is used for a variety of different ailments including depression, anxiety, and even a sleep aid. The vibrant flowers grow most abundantly on water banks such as rivers and lakes, due to the consistently saturated soil. Characteristics of the blue lotus come from its key alkaloids. The main two are known as aporphine and nuciferine and they both provide different effects that when combined compliment each other. Aporphine is considered a psychoactive alkaloid as well as a nonselective dopamine agonist used to treat Parkinson’s disease (Tag: Blue Lotus and Serotonin, 2019). The other alkaloid found in the flower is known as nuciferine which is associated with the dopamine receptor blockade. Essentially these two compounds bind with the neurotransmitters in the brain providing relaxing effects (Harer W. Benson,2021). One of the best ways to use blue lotus is when the body is experiencing mild pains such as cramps, headaches, or muscle pain. Simply brewing a tea will help to ease discomfort especially since this flower is considered an analgesic. Analgesics are known most commonly to assist in the pain-relieving process allowing this to be a great natural remedy.

8a. Willow Bark 

Willow Bark, also known as Silicaceae, is traditionally known to be a good treatment for a wide array of issues including headache, fever, rheumatism, arthritis, and other ailments. It is commonly incorporated into many products in Europe. A study showed that over six months of moderated dosage, the low back pain of 436 patients were analyzed. When combined with Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs it was shown to be an effective therapy for musculoskeletal disorders (Edwards,2015). The compound of polyphenols present in willow bark provides a stronger pain relief than that of aspirin while also preserving the stomach lining unlike aspirin (Edwards,2015). The dose for a dry aqueous extract of willow bark in adults is 480-600mg twice during the day and for the powder form use 260-500mg dose three times a day in an herbal tea(Edwards,2015).

9a. Lavender 

Lavender, otherwise known as lavandula angustifolia, is a botanical commonly known for its relaxing properties. As part of the lamiaceae family, identified by its bright flowering buds, lavender has many medicinal benefits. Clinical evidence has shown that breathing in lavender oil aromatically, or even taking it orally such as in a blended tincture, or drinking it in tea, has exhibited anti-anxiety properties and helped those suffering from disturbed sleep (Edwards,2015). Lavender also seems to process pain-relieving properties when implemented in a randomized controlled trial in haemodialysis with arteriovenous fistulas. The methods being tested were the inhalation of lavender v.s the insertion of a needle into patients fistula. Trial proved that the lavender inhalation method was more successful for pain relief (Edwards,2015). A similar study testing lavenders inhalation properties in children ages six to twelve. Their use of lavender oil aromatically proved to lower their use of acetaminophen after a tonsillectomy by a large portion (Edwards,2015). The chemical property that is associated with providing the benefits within the plant itself is called Linalool (Edwards,2015). Linalool is a known terpene (reference terpene chapter here) which provides the sedating and relaxing effects. Another trial for testing the relief of perineal trauma following childbirth, found that when it comes to postpartum care, lavender oil can aid in the process of healing. When added to a warm bath over the course of five days, users reported that it showed lower levels of overall discomfort between days three and five (Edwards,2015). Lavender was shown to a

10a. Tea Tree

11a. Eucalyptus 

12a. Rosemary

13a. Cinnamon

14a German Chamomile

15a.Roamn Chamomile

16a. Ginger

17a.Witch Hazel

18a. Sage

19a. St. John’s Wart

 

CHAPTER SEVEN – NOOTROPICS

Nootropics are understood to be cognitive enhancers that are nontoxic and prove to be neuroprotective (Pranav, C.,1970). Since the brain is the center of the entire nervous system, its health is vital to all other parts of the body. Nootropics stimulate and provide precursors to neurotransmitters, which help to prevent neuroprotective damage, increase overall brain circulation, and dispense usable energy to the brain itself. These functions help to strengthen the brain and stimulate the growth of new cells (Pranav, C.,1970). Nootropics can also help to strengthen mental awareness, focus levels, and the quickness of reactions. They can also be prescribed medicines like those for ADHD or Alzheimers, or they can be bought over-the-counter, such as caffeine. These are still considered nootropics because of the brain-enhancing properties that they possess. For example, prescription nootropics (just want to touch on this since this is not a medical book)- doctors can treat a variety of medical conditions using nootropics such as ADHD, narcolepsy, dementia, or similar. Typically they will prescribe a stimulant such as Adderall or Ritalin, modanafil, or memantine respectively. These medications should not be taken without a prescription and can have adverse effects if used improperly. These include high blood pressure, fast heart rate, insomnia, troubled vision, and addiction. The term “nootropics” can also be applied to natural or synthetic substances that enhance cognition and memory. Popular nootropics include caffeine, L-theanine, omega-3 fatty acids, racetams, Ginkgo Biloba, Panax ginseng, Rhodiola, and creatine, among many others. 

2.How do they work?

Nootropics work by altering the number of available chemical levels in the brain such as those involving enzymes, neurotransmitters, and hormones (Pranav, C.,1970). Hormones help to increase the strength of memory as well as the process of creating new nerve cells (neurogenesis) while also encoding those memories. Amino acids help to invoke alertness and protect us against catecholamines (definition of this word to the side?). Antioxidants help the brain to retain mental abilities longer which keeps the brain younger. As Joshi Pranav explains in his article from the Unique Journal of Engineering & Advanced Sciences, “The safest types of cognitive enhancers consist of herbal drugs and are available in supplement form, which mostly contains vitamins, fatty acids, antioxidants, amino acids, minerals, etc and other herbal ingredients (Pranav, C.,1970).” Other herbal supplements that help cognitive enhancement and are considered to be natural nootropics include Panax ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, St. John’s Wort, Caffeine, and Lycoris Radiata. Natural Nootropics also work to increase cognition and energy levels by acting as a vasodilator (Suliman, Noor Azuin,2016). This means they assist the blood vessels in expanding which helps to prevent them from tightening, reducing high blood pressure. The introduction of a natural nootropic will increase the amount of blood circulation that the brain is receiving (Suliman, Noor Azuin,2016). One must note that finding the optimum dose per person can take time, as well as trial and error. For the nootropic to stimulate the responding mechanisms it is designed to do, it must pass through the blood-brain barrier within the body. 

The blood-brain barrier is a highly selective semi-permeable membrane between our blood vessels and the extracellular fluid of our central nervous system. This is a place of exchange for molecules; where the things we want can enter our brains and the waste can be removed and filtered out through our blood. This is similar to the membranes in your lungs, where substances are either inhaled and passed into the bloodstream or passed out of the bloodstream and into the lungs to be exhaled. With our brains being our most vital asset to our bodies, the blood-brain barrier is incredibly selective to what it will allow passing. For nootropics to work, they have to be small enough molecules to pass this barrier, and even then some may need carrier proteins to get them across.

CHAPTER EIGHT – PETS

Just like humans, our furry friends can suffer from anxieties, aches, and pains as well as inflammation and arthritis. Why not treat your fur babies the same way you treat yourself? There are natural alternatives to prescription painkillers and anxiety meds to help your dog or cat calm down and feel relief. 

Animals, just like humans, have endocannabinoid systems. That means that they are already equipped to process and benefit from cannabinoids! CBD oil or treats can be a great way to help your dog or cat to feel relief from whatever ailments they are experiencing! CBD oil can help pets with anxiety issues, hip and joint issues, inflammation, and overall pain. Recommended dosing for dogs is 3-5mg per 10 pounds of dog. Recommended dosing for cats is 2-4mg per 10 pounds of cat.

Similarly, it is suggested that kratom can be beneficial to dogs as well. A 1992 study found that doses as high as 920mg/kg of kratom did not prove to be toxic to dogs, and that kratom is minimally toxic to most animals (Fluyau, Dimy, Revadigar, 2017).  There is a good amount of anecdotal evidence of individuals administering kratom to their pups in the late stages of their life to deal with anxieties, aches, and pains, however, it is always best to consult a vet before starting your pup on any kind of new herbal supplement. More research will be required on giving kratom to pets to determine with certainty whether it is safe for long-term use or if it should be used in terminal cases only. 

Interestingly, most veterinarians will not entertain the idea of giving kratom to cats, and nobody knows why. One website suggests that dosing for dogs and cats can be the same, however, there is not enough scientific data to support this claim.

 

GLOSSARY 

Cytokines 

Signal proteins that play important roles when it comes to managing chemically induced tissue damage and its repair. 

Kinases

Enzyme that adds phosphate groups to other molecules 

Enzymes

Chemical substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms. Responsible for regulating the rate at which the chemical reactions needed for survival take place in the organisms and is not altered in this process

Antioxidants 

The various chemical compounds that are added to certain items such as foods, and other substances that enhance oxygen production and defend the body against free radicals

Modulators

Circuit that intends to combine two signals that can later be dissected and used 

Analogue

Similarity of function and superficial resemblance of structures that have different origins 

Carcinogenic 

Compound that is known to have cancer causing properties 

Aqueous

Any solution in which water is the solvent 

Free Radicals 

Highly reactive and unstable molecules produced in the body or within the environment that survive a fraction of a second and can cause cancer damaging cells or harm DNA codes.

Flatulence 

The passing of gas that travels through the abdomen and exits at the anus 

Angiogenic 

Defined as the process of capillary sprouting from preexisting vasculature and is most strongly induced by low tissue oxygen tension

CITED SOURCES

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Kratom

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 Kava

1. Tasi, Amiri. “Understanding Kavalactones: How to Interpret Kava Chemocodes.” Kava Guides, 25 Aug. 2020, kavaguides.com/kavalactones/. 
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 Kanna

1.  Smith, Michael, et al. Erowid Kanna Vaults : Psychoactive Constituents of the Genus Sceletium N.E.Br. and Other Mesembryanthemaceae: a Review, Mar. 1996, www.erowid.org/plants/kanna/kanna_journal1.shtml. 
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Mushrooms 

Fungi

1. Bioneerschannel, director. Paul Stamets – How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World | Bioneers. YouTube, YouTube, 3 Dec. 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbGRMj9tP5M. 
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Reishi

1. Benzie, Iris F. F. “Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects, Second Edition.” Google Books, CRC Press, 28 Mar. 2011, books.google.com/books?id=7WDgesSflScC&dq=reishi%2Bmushroom%2Bganoderma%2Blucidum&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s. 
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Lions Mane

1. Lai, Puei-Lene, et al. “Neurotrophic Properties of the Lion’s Mane Medicinal Mushroom, Hericium Erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Malaysia.” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Begel House Inc., www.dl.begellhouse.com/journals/708ae68d64b17c52,034eeb045436a171,750a15ad12ae25e9.html. 
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Cordyceps

1. Ng, T. B., and H. X. Wang. “Pharmacological Actions of Cordyceps, a Prized Folk Medicine.” Wiley Online Library, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 18 Feb. 2010, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1211/jpp.57.12.0001. 
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Turkey Tail

1. P;, Stamets. “Trametes Versicolor (Turkey Tail Mushrooms) and the Treatment of Breast Cancer.” Global Advances in Health and Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2012, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27257526/. 
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 Supplements 

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Ashwagandha 

1. Singh, Narendra, et al. “An Overview on Ashwagandha: a Rasayana (Rejuvenator) of Ayurveda.” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines : AJTCAM, African Networks on Ethnomedicines, 2011, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252722/. 
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Ginseng

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4. Suliman, Noor Azuin, et al. “Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Hindawi, 30 Aug. 2016, www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/4391375/.
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Turmeric 

1. Chaturvedi, TP. “Uses of Turmeric in Dentistry: An Update.” Indian Journal of Dental Research , 2009, www.ijdr.in/article.asp?issn=0970-9290;year=2009;volume=20;issue=1;spage=107;epage=109;aulast=Chaturvedi. 
2. Khanna, N. M. “Turmeric – Nature’s Precious Gift.” Current Science, vol. 76, no. 10, 1999, pp. 1351–1356. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24102180. Accessed 21 Jan. 2021.
3. Suresh Rao, Chetana Dinkar. “The Indian Spice Turmeric Delays and Mitigates Radiation-Induced Oral Mucositis in Patients Undergoing Treatment for Head and Neck Cancer: An Investigational Study – Suresh Rao, Chetana Dinkar, Lalit Kumar Vaishnav, Pratima Rao, Manoj Ponadka Rai, Raja Fayad, Manjeshwar Shrinath Baliga, 2014.” SAGE Journals, journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1534735413503549. 
4. Chainani-Wu, Nita, et al. “Safety and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Curcumin: A Component of Turmeric (Curcuma Longa).” Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., Publishers, 5 July 2004, www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/107555303321223035. 
5. Wargovich, Michael J., et al. “Herbals, Cancer Prevention and Health.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Nov. 2001, academic.oup.com/jn/article/131/11/3034S/4686712?login=true. 
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Aloe Vera 

1. Manasija Rath, MD. “Aloe Vera: Not Just for Sunburns – Penn Medicine.” – Penn Medicine, Penn Medicine Health Blogs, 10 Feb. 2020, www.pennmedicine.org/updates/blogs/health-and-wellness/2019/august/aloe. 
2. Shelton, Ronald M. “Aloe Vera Its Chemical and Therapeutic Properties .” Desert Harvest, www.desertharvest.com/physicians/documents/142-0.pdf.
3. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Tongkat Ali

1. Talbott, Shawn M. “Human Performance and Sports Applications of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia).” Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance (Second Edition), Academic Press, 12 Oct. 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128139226000631. 
2. R. Bhat, AA. Karim, et al. “Effect of Tongkat Ali on Stress Hormones and Psychological Mood State in Moderately Stressed Subjects.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, BioMed Central, 1 Jan. 1970, jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-28. 
3. Talbott, Shawn M. “Human Performance and Sports Applications of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia).” Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance, Academic Press, 15 Aug. 2013, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123964540000539. 
4. Rehman, Shaheed Ur, et al. “Review on a Traditional Herbal Medicine, Eurycoma Longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali): Its Traditional Uses, Chemistry, Evidence-Based Pharmacology and Toxicology.” MDPI, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 10 Mar. 2016, www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/3/331. 
5. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Moringa 

1. N, Foidl, et al. “The Potential of Moringa Oleifera for Agricultural and Industrial Uses .” Moringatrees.org, 2001, www.moringatrees.org/moringa-doc/the_potential_of_moringa_oleifera_for_agricultural_and_industrial_uses.pdf. 
2. Price, Martin L. Ebook Moringa , 2007, Price, DRr. Martin L. “The Moringa Tree .” Ebook Moringa , 2007, pdf-ins-internet.de/dateien/ebook_moringa.pdf.  
3. U., Eilert, et al. “The Antibiotic Principle of Seeds of Moringa Olefiera and Moringa Stenopetala .” Researchgate.net, 1981, www.researchgate.net/profile/Dr_Adolf_Nahrstedt/publication/15942669_The_Antibiotic_Principle_of_Seeds_of_Moringa_oleifera_and_Moringa_stenopetala/links/0c960528099a21c727000000.pdf. 
4. Nadeem, Muhammad, and Muhammad Imran. “Promising Features of Moringa Oleifera Oil: Recent Updates and Perspectives.” Lipids in Health and Disease, BioMed Central, 8 Dec. 2016, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5146848/. 
5. Nine Mile Botanicals, 28 Dec. 2017, ninemilebotanicals.com/. 

Akuamma 

1. Solomon , I.P., et al. “Chronic Oral Consumption of Ethanolic Extract of Picralima Nitida (Akuamma) Seed Induced Histopathological Changes on the Testes of Adult Wistar Rats .” Ijpras.com, ijpras.com/en.
2. Editorial Staff, “Herbal Medicine: Things You Need To Know About Akuamma,” in Medicalopedia, May 20, 2020, 
3. [Permalink:https://www.medicalopedia.org/8904/herbal-medicine-things-you-need-to-know-about-akuamma/].
4. Erharuyi, Osayemwenre, et al. “Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Picralima Nitida (Apocynaceae) in Tropical Diseases: A Review.” Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, No Longer Published by Elsevier, 11 Jan. 2014,

Blue Lotus 

1. Poklis, Justin L. “The Blue Lotus Flower (Nymphea Caerulea) Resin Used in a New Type of Electronic Cigarette, the Re-Buildable Dripping Atomizer.” Taylor & Francis, 7 Mar. 2017, www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02791072.2017.1290304. 
2. Harer, W. Benson. “Pharmacological and Biological Properties of the Egyptian Lotus.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 22, 1985, pp. 49–54. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40000390. Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.
3. User, Super. “Tag: Blue Lotus Serotonin.” Drugs and Bad Ideas, 2 Nov. 2019, drugsandbadideas.com/tag/blue-lotus-serotonin/.  (found on google scholar)
4. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

 

Nootropics 

1. Berry, Jennifer. “Nootropics: Types, Safety, and Risks of Smart Drugs.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 18 Sept. 2019, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326379#over-the-counter. 
2. Tomen, David. “GABA.” Nootropics Expert, NootrpicsExpert.com, 16 May 2020, nootropicsexpert.com/gaba/. 
3. Froestl, Wolfgang, et al. “Cognitive Enhancers (Nootropics). Part 1: Drugs Interacting with Receptors.” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, IOS Press, 1 Jan. 2012, content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad121186. 
4. Head , Kathi. “What Is A Nootropic and Where Do Nootropics Come From?” Thorne, 27 May 2019, www.thorne.com/take-5-daily/article/what-is-a-nootropic-and-where-do-nootropics-come-from. 
5. JoshiPranav, C., and P. Joshi. “[PDF] A REVIEW ON NATURAL MEMORY ENHANCERS (NOOTROPICS): Semantic Scholar.” Undefined, 1 Jan. 1970, www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-REVIEW-ON-NATURAL-MEMORY-ENHANCERS-%28NOOTROPICS%29-JoshiPranav-Joshi/a01af800271cf11f4ccb87c7c739d29582bea2f3. 
6. Suliman, Noor Azuin, et al. “Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Hindawi, 30 Aug. 2016, www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/4391375/. 

 

Pets

1. Fluyau, Dimy, and Neelambika Revadigar. “Biochemical Benefits, Diagnosis, and Clinical Risks Evaluation of Kratom.” Frontiers in Psychiatry, Frontiers Media S.A., 24 Apr. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5402527/#B5. 
2. Kemp, Paul. “Kratom Use by Pets – Anecdotal Reports by Pet Lovers.” Speciosa.org, 18 Jan. 2017, speciosa.org/kratom-use-by-pets-anecdotal-reports-by-pet-lovers/. 

 

Glossary Cited Sources

Cytokines 

Foster, J R. “The Functions of Cytokines and Their Uses in Toxicology.” International Journal of Experimental Pathology, Blackwell Science Inc, June 2001, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2517710/. 

Kinase

Cooper, John A. “Kinase.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 23 July 2018, www.britannica.com/science/kinase. 

Antioxidants

Called about this source:

https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/antioxidants/

Modulators

Buchanan, William. “Modulators.” Modulators – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, 2008, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/modulators#:~:text=A%20modulator%20is%20a%20circuit,later%20and%20the%20information%20obtained. 

Analogue

Jain, Parul. “Analogy: Additional Information.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 16 Sept. 2011, www.britannica.com/science/analogy-evolution/additional-info#history. 

Aqueous 

Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D. “What Is an Aqueous Solution? Chemistry Definition and Example.” ThoughtCo, 11 Sept. 2019, www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-aqueous-solution-604370. 

Free Radicals

Lynne Eldridge, MD. “What Exactly Are Free Radicals and Why Are They Important?” Verywell Health, 2 Feb. 2020, www.verywellhealth.com/information-about-free-radicals-2249103#:~:text=Free%20radicals%20are%20atoms%20that,other%20parts%20of%20human%20cells. 

Flatulence 

Modi, Ronak. “Belching, Bloating, and Flatulence.” American College of Gastroenterology, July 2013, gi.org/topics/belching-bloating-and-flatulence/. 

Angiogenesis

Bikfalvi, Andreas. “Angiogenesis.” Angiogenesis – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/angiogenesis. 

 

CITED SOURCES

 Marijuana 

1. Rätsch Christian. Marijuana Medicine a World Tour of the Healing and Visionary Powers of Cannabis. Healing Arts Press, 2001. 
2. Lee, Martin A. Smoke Signals: a Social History of Marijuana– Medical, Recreational and Scientific. Scribner, 2013. 
3. O’Connell, Kit. “History Of Hemp In The US: Hemp History.” Ministry of Hemp, 10 July 2020, ministryofhemp.com/hemp/history/. 
4. “Home – PMC – NCBI.” National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/. 
5. “Cannabinoid Report: 2-AG.” Cannabis Economy, canneconomy.com/report/cannabinoid-report-2-ag/. 
6. Panikashvili D;Simeonidou C;Ben-Shabat S;Hanus L;Breuer A;Mechoulam R;Shohami E; “An Endogenous Cannabinoid (2-AG) Is Neuroprotective after Brain Injury.” Nature, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11586361/. 
7. “CBG.” Cresco Labs, 18 Nov. 2020, www.crescolabs.com/cannabinoids/cbg/. 
8. Schmidt, Elena. “A Guide to CBG: Extraction, Storage, Price, Consumption and More.” ACS Lab Cannabis, 17 Sept. 2020, acslabcannabis.com/blog/education/a-guide-to-cbg-extraction-storage-price-consumption-and-more/. 
9. Earlenbaugh, Emily. “What Is CBN (Cannabinol) & What Are the Benefits of This Cannabinoid?” Leafly, 5 Oct. 2020, www.leafly.com/news/science-tech/what-is-cbn-and-what-are-the-benefits-of-this-cannabinoid. 
10. “Benefits of CBG / the Mother of All Cannabinoids.” Hemple, 10 Sept. 2019, www.hemple.com/benefits-of-cbg-the-mother-of-all-cannabinoids/. 
11. “History Of Hemp In The US: Hemp History.” Ministry of Hemp, 9 July 2020, ministryofhemp.com/hemp/history/. 
12. Ferguson, Sian. “Hemp vs. Marijuana: What’s the Difference?” Healthline, Healthline Media, 27 Aug. 2020, www.healthline.com/health/hemp-vs-marijuana. 
13. Letscher, Emily. “The Endocannabinoid System, Our Universal Regulator.” Journal of Young Investigators, Journal of Young Investigators, 1 June 2018, www.jyi.org/2018-june/2018/6/1/the-endocannabinoid-system-our-universal-regulator
14. Valdeolivas, Sara, et al. “Neuroprotective Properties of Cannabigerol in Huntington’s Disease: Studies in R6/2 Mice and 3-Nitropropionate-Lesioned Mice.” Neurotherapeutics : the Journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 12 Jan. 2015, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25252936/#:~:text=Herein%2C%20we%20studied%20the%20effects,striatal%20neurons%20against%203NP%20toxicity. 
15. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

Kratom

1. Lentjes, Marleen A H. “The Balance between Food and Dietary Supplements in the General Population.” The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 30 Oct. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6366563/. 
2. Cinosi, Eduardo, et al. “Following ‘the Roots’ of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries.” BioMed Research International, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, 10 Nov. 2015, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4657101/. 
3. Leong Bin Abdullah, Mohammad Farris Iman, et al. “Lipid Profile of Regular Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.) Users in the Community Setting.” PloS One, Public Library of Science, 11 June 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7289408/#:~:text=The%20multiple%20linear%20regression%20model,increase%20in%20serum%20total%20cholesterol. 
4. Pierre, Christina, et al. “Kratom Metabolite Causes False Positive Urine Drug Screening Results for Methadone.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 28 Oct. 2020, academic.oup.com/ajcp/article/154/Supplement_1/S19/5942516?login=true. 
5. Kraoma, Kraoma. “Kratom Legality 2021: Map, Legal Status, and Ban Updates.” Kraoma, 21 Apr. 2021, kraoma.com/kratom-legality-united-states/. 
6. Tatum, William O, et al. “Recurrent Seizures from Chronic Kratom Use, an Atypical Herbal Opioid.” Epilepsy & Behavior Case Reports, Elsevier, 17 Apr. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063981/. 
7. Afzal, Hasnain, et al. “A Case of Kratom-Induced Seizures.” Cureus, Cureus, 7 Jan. 2020, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7001130/#:~:text=Kratom%20use%20in%20the%20US,life%2Dthreatening%20%5B6%5D. 

 Kava

1. Tasi, Amiri. “Understanding Kavalactones: How to Interpret Kava Chemocodes.” Kava Guides, 25 Aug. 2020, kavaguides.com/kavalactones/. 
2. “Chemotypes: Kava Library: TrueKava.com.” Chemotypes | Kava Library | TrueKava.com, www.kavalibrary.com/Chemotypes.html. 
3. NN;, Singh YN;Singh. “Therapeutic Potential of Kava in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders.” CNS Drugs, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2002, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12383029/. 

 Kanna

1.  Smith, Michael, et al. Erowid Kanna Vaults : Psychoactive Constituents of the Genus Sceletium N.E.Br. and Other Mesembryanthemaceae: a Review, Mar. 1996, www.erowid.org/plants/kanna/kanna_journal1.shtml. 
2. Terburg, David, et al. “Acute Effects of Sceletium Tortuosum (Zembrin), a Dual 5-HT Reuptake and PDE4 Inhibitor, in the Human Amygdala and Its Connection to the Hypothalamus.” Neuropsychopharmacology : Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, Nature Publishing Group, Dec. 2013, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3828542/. 
3. NP;, Harvey AL;Young LC;Viljoen AM;Gericke. “Pharmacological Actions of the South African Medicinal and Functional Food Plant Sceletium Tortuosum and Its Principal Alkaloids.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 11 Oct. 2011, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21798331/. 
4. I;, Patnala S;Kanfer. “HPLC Analysis of Mesembrine-Type Alkaloids in Sceletium Plant Material Used as an African Traditional Medicine.” Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences : a Publication of the Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Societe Canadienne Des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2010, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21486531/. 

Mushrooms 

Fungi

1. Bioneerschannel, director. Paul Stamets – How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World | Bioneers. YouTube, YouTube, 3 Dec. 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbGRMj9tP5M. 
2. zooillogix on April 23, 2007. “Zooillogix.” ScienceBlogs, scienceblogs.com/zooillogix/2007/04/23/giant-prehistoric-organism-ide. 

Reishi

1. Benzie, Iris F. F. “Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects, Second Edition.” Google Books, CRC Press, 28 Mar. 2011, books.google.com/books?id=7WDgesSflScC&dq=reishi%2Bmushroom%2Bganoderma%2Blucidum&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s. 
2. Your Super. “Reishi Mushrooms: 4 Health Benefits Of This Medicinal Mushroom.” Your Super, yoursuper.com/pages/reishi-mushroom-benefits?utm_source=google&utm_medium=paid-search&gclid=CjwKCAiAl4WABhAJEiwATUnEF8VCGx1GYlVaP75j-t-GuzwTcU1tHFQbrStJaoC4UlqqOYDppJTDIRoCNHAQAvD_BwE. 
3. Winston, David. “Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief.” Google Books, Simon and Schuster, 17 Sept. 2019, books.google.com/books?id=ZdOPDwAAQBAJ&dq=reishi%2Bas%2Ban%2Badaptogen%5C&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s. 
4. Stamets, Paul. Growing Gourmet & Medicinal Mushrooms: Shokuyō Oyobi yakuyō Kinoko No Saibai: a Companion Guide to The Mushroom Cultivator. Ten Speed Press, 2000. 
5. “Mushrooms: Food of Royalty.” The Pilot Newspaper, 24 Oct. 2012, www.thepilot.com/news/mushrooms-food-of-royalty/article_0f5dcd30-07fe-58f4-b45f-f81f4dc60c1c.html. 
6. Wachtel-Galor, Sissi. “Ganoderma Lucidum (Lingzhi or Reishi).” Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1970, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92757/. 
7. Tang W;Gao Y;Chen G;Gao H;Dai X;Ye J;Chan E;Huang M;Zhou S; “A Randomized, Double-Blind and Placebo-Controlled Study of a Ganoderma Lucidum Polysaccharide Extract in Neurasthenia.” Journal of Medicinal Food, U.S. National Library of Medicine, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15857210/. 

Lions Mane

1. Lai, Puei-Lene, et al. “Neurotrophic Properties of the Lion’s Mane Medicinal Mushroom, Hericium Erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Malaysia.” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Begel House Inc., www.dl.begellhouse.com/journals/708ae68d64b17c52,034eeb045436a171,750a15ad12ae25e9.html. 
2. Davis, Written by Renée A., et al. “Lion’s Mane: Nutrients for the Nervous System.” Renee A. Davis, 7 May 2019, www.reneeadavis.com/2017/11/08/lions-mane-nutrients-nervous-system/. 
3. Sayner, Adam. “Medicinal Mushrooms: The Complete Guide.” GroCycle, 19 Jan. 2021, grocycle.com/medicinal-mushrooms-the-complete-guide/. 
4. Stamets , Paul. “Amadou Mushroom Hat.” Mushroomsknowbest, www.mushroomsknowbest.com/cognitive-health/.
5. Authors, All, and Bing-Ji Ma. “Hericenones and Erinacines: Stimulators of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) Biosynthesis in Hericium Erinaceus.” Taylor & Francis, www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21501201003735556.
6. Popov, Martin. “Lion’s Mane Mushroom – What It Is Really Good for?” Mushrooms Health, 16 Nov. 2020, mushroomhealth.org/2020/11/16/lions-mane-mushroom-what-it-is-really-good-for/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwrsGCBhD1ARIsALILBYo4v3l6_hEf7FnhfUXljLlqJwac8u9TAOny0Wk2VzUYGtkDGBB-Q4EaAq93EALw_wcB. 
7. Wakkojono, director. Understanding BDNF and Its Importance to Brain Health. YouTube, YouTube, 10 Apr. 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=YU9kviOMQy0&t=324s. 

Cordyceps

1. Ng, T. B., and H. X. Wang. “Pharmacological Actions of Cordyceps, a Prized Folk Medicine.” Wiley Online Library, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 18 Feb. 2010, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1211/jpp.57.12.0001. 
2. Zaidi, Kamal U., et al. “The Health Benefits of Cordyceps Militaris – a Review.” Researchgate.net, 22 June 2017, www.researchgate.net/profile/Drkamal-Zaidi/publication/319448760_The_health_benefits_of_Cordyceps_militaris_-_A_review/links/5b6188dc458515c4b257310a/The-health-benefits-of-Cordyceps-militaris-A-review.pdf. 
3. Bioneerschannel, director. Paul Stamets – How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World | Bioneers. YouTube, YouTube, 3 Dec. 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbGRMj9tP5M. 

Turkey Tail

1. P;, Stamets. “Trametes Versicolor (Turkey Tail Mushrooms) and the Treatment of Breast Cancer.” Global Advances in Health and Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2012, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27257526/. 
2.  Pine, Dr. Dov. “The Amazing Properties of Turkey Tail Mushrooms.” Dr. Dov Pine, 28 Mar. 2020, www.drdovpine.com/turkey-tail-mushrooms/. 
3. Hobbs, Christopher. “Medicinal Value of Turkey Tail Fungus Trametes Versicolor (L.:Fr.) Pilát (Aphyllophoromycetideae). A Literature Review.” International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Begel House Inc., www.dl.begellhouse.com/journals/708ae68d64b17c52,1b1b20957ef5c8f4,210d57c00e88b78c.html. 
4. Bioneerschannel, director. Paul Stamets – How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World | Bioneers. YouTube, YouTube, 3 Dec. 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbGRMj9tP5M. 

 Supplements 

1. Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee on the Framework for Evaluating the Safety of Dietary Supplements. “Introduction and Background.” Dietary Supplements: A Framework for Evaluating Safety., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1970, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK216048/. 
2. Wargovich, Michael J., et al. “Herbals, Cancer Prevention and Health.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Nov. 2001, academic.oup.com/jn/article/131/11/3034S/4686712?login=true
3. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015.

Ashwagandha 

1. Singh, Narendra, et al. “An Overview on Ashwagandha: a Rasayana (Rejuvenator) of Ayurveda.” African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines : AJTCAM, African Networks on Ethnomedicines, 2011, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252722/. 
2. “Ashwagandha (Indian Ginseng/Winter Cherry).” The Art of Living Retreat Center, 17 Sept. 2020, artoflivingretreatcenter.org/blog/ashwagandha/. 
3. Khan, Mahmood Ahmad, et al. “Effect of Withania Somnifera (Ashwagandha) Root Extract on Amelioration of Oxidative Stress and Autoantibodies Production in Collagen-Induced Arthritic Rats.” De Gruyter, De Gruyter, 1 June 2015, www.degruyter.com/view/journals/jcim/12/2/article-p117.xml. 
4. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 
5.  

Ginseng

1. Kiefer, David S., and Traci Pantuso. “Panax Ginseng.” American Family Physician, 15 Oct. 2003, www.aafp.org/afp/2003/1015/p1539.html. 
2. “Asian Ginseng.” National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.nccih.nih.gov/health/asian-ginseng.
3. Ginsana, Ginsana. “Types of Ginseng – Many Species and Wide-Ranging Uses: Flordis.” Ginsana, Ginsana, 14 Jan. 2020, www.ginsanaproducts.com/health-insights/energy-immune-system/a-history-of-ginseng/#:~:text=Panax%20ginseng%20originated%20in%20Asia,cultivated%20herbs%20in%20the%20world. 
4. Suliman, Noor Azuin, et al. “Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Hindawi, 30 Aug. 2016, www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/4391375/.
5. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 
6.  

Turmeric 

1. Chaturvedi, TP. “Uses of Turmeric in Dentistry: An Update.” Indian Journal of Dental Research , 2009, www.ijdr.in/article.asp?issn=0970-9290;year=2009;volume=20;issue=1;spage=107;epage=109;aulast=Chaturvedi. 
2. Khanna, N. M. “Turmeric – Nature’s Precious Gift.” Current Science, vol. 76, no. 10, 1999, pp. 1351–1356. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24102180. Accessed 21 Jan. 2021.
3. Suresh Rao, Chetana Dinkar. “The Indian Spice Turmeric Delays and Mitigates Radiation-Induced Oral Mucositis in Patients Undergoing Treatment for Head and Neck Cancer: An Investigational Study – Suresh Rao, Chetana Dinkar, Lalit Kumar Vaishnav, Pratima Rao, Manoj Ponadka Rai, Raja Fayad, Manjeshwar Shrinath Baliga, 2014.” SAGE Journals, journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1534735413503549. 
4. Chainani-Wu, Nita, et al. “Safety and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Curcumin: A Component of Turmeric (Curcuma Longa).” Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., Publishers, 5 July 2004, www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/107555303321223035. 
5. Wargovich, Michael J., et al. “Herbals, Cancer Prevention and Health.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Nov. 2001, academic.oup.com/jn/article/131/11/3034S/4686712?login=true. 
6. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 
7.  

Aloe Vera 

1. Manasija Rath, MD. “Aloe Vera: Not Just for Sunburns – Penn Medicine.” – Penn Medicine, Penn Medicine Health Blogs, 10 Feb. 2020, www.pennmedicine.org/updates/blogs/health-and-wellness/2019/august/aloe. 
2. Shelton, Ronald M. “Aloe Vera Its Chemical and Therapeutic Properties .” Desert Harvest, www.desertharvest.com/physicians/documents/142-0.pdf.
3. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Tongkat Ali

1. Talbott, Shawn M. “Human Performance and Sports Applications of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia).” Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance (Second Edition), Academic Press, 12 Oct. 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128139226000631. 
2. R. Bhat, AA. Karim, et al. “Effect of Tongkat Ali on Stress Hormones and Psychological Mood State in Moderately Stressed Subjects.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, BioMed Central, 1 Jan. 1970, jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-28. 
3. Talbott, Shawn M. “Human Performance and Sports Applications of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma Longifolia).” Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance, Academic Press, 15 Aug. 2013, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123964540000539. 
4. Rehman, Shaheed Ur, et al. “Review on a Traditional Herbal Medicine, Eurycoma Longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali): Its Traditional Uses, Chemistry, Evidence-Based Pharmacology and Toxicology.” MDPI, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 10 Mar. 2016, www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/3/331. 
5. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Moringa 

1. N, Foidl, et al. “The Potential of Moringa Oleifera for Agricultural and Industrial Uses .” Moringatrees.org, 2001, www.moringatrees.org/moringa-doc/the_potential_of_moringa_oleifera_for_agricultural_and_industrial_uses.pdf. 
2. Price, Martin L. Ebook Moringa , 2007, Price, DRr. Martin L. “The Moringa Tree .” Ebook Moringa , 2007, pdf-ins-internet.de/dateien/ebook_moringa.pdf.  
3. U., Eilert, et al. “The Antibiotic Principle of Seeds of Moringa Olefiera and Moringa Stenopetala .” Researchgate.net, 1981, www.researchgate.net/profile/Dr_Adolf_Nahrstedt/publication/15942669_The_Antibiotic_Principle_of_Seeds_of_Moringa_oleifera_and_Moringa_stenopetala/links/0c960528099a21c727000000.pdf. 
4. Nadeem, Muhammad, and Muhammad Imran. “Promising Features of Moringa Oleifera Oil: Recent Updates and Perspectives.” Lipids in Health and Disease, BioMed Central, 8 Dec. 2016, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5146848/. 
5. Nine Mile Botanicals, 28 Dec. 2017, ninemilebotanicals.com/. 

Akuamma 

1. Solomon , I.P., et al. “Chronic Oral Consumption of Ethanolic Extract of Picralima Nitida (Akuamma) Seed Induced Histopathological Changes on the Testes of Adult Wistar Rats .” Ijpras.com, ijpras.com/en.
2. Editorial Staff, “Herbal Medicine: Things You Need To Know About Akuamma,” in Medicalopedia, May 20, 2020, 
3. [Permalink:https://www.medicalopedia.org/8904/herbal-medicine-things-you-need-to-know-about-akuamma/].
4. Erharuyi, Osayemwenre, et al. “Medicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Picralima Nitida (Apocynaceae) in Tropical Diseases: A Review.” Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, No Longer Published by Elsevier, 11 Jan. 2014,

Blue Lotus 

1. Poklis, Justin L. “The Blue Lotus Flower (Nymphea Caerulea) Resin Used in a New Type of Electronic Cigarette, the Re-Buildable Dripping Atomizer.” Taylor & Francis, 7 Mar. 2017, www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02791072.2017.1290304. 
2. Harer, W. Benson. “Pharmacological and Biological Properties of the Egyptian Lotus.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 22, 1985, pp. 49–54. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40000390. Accessed 27 Jan. 2021.
3. User, Super. “Tag: Blue Lotus Serotonin.” Drugs and Bad Ideas, 2 Nov. 2019, drugsandbadideas.com/tag/blue-lotus-serotonin/.  (found on google scholar)
4. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Lavender

1. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

 

Tea Tree

1. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 
2. Carson, C. F., Hammer, K. A., & Riley, T. V. (2006, January 1). Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Oil: a Review of Antimicrobial and Other Medicinal Properties. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. https://cmr.asm.org/content/19/1/50.short. 

Eucalyptus 

1. Coppen, J. J. W. (n.d.). Eucalyptus. Google Books. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0dRlDMvlhQ0C&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=eucalyptus&ots=rHHwJod8zI&sig=Q1fJkKCy3DhAbM6xcXD0MFjLr9A#v=onepage&q=eucalyptus&f=false. 
2. Edwards, Sarah E., et al. Phytopharmacy: an Evidence-Based Guide to Herbal Medicinal Products. Wiley Blackwell, 2015. 

Nootropics 

1. Berry, Jennifer. “Nootropics: Types, Safety, and Risks of Smart Drugs.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 18 Sept. 2019, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326379#over-the-counter. 
2. Tomen, David. “GABA.” Nootropics Expert, NootrpicsExpert.com, 16 May 2020, nootropicsexpert.com/gaba/. 
3. Froestl, Wolfgang, et al. “Cognitive Enhancers (Nootropics). Part 1: Drugs Interacting with Receptors.” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, IOS Press, 1 Jan. 2012, content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad121186. 
4. Head , Kathi. “What Is A Nootropic and Where Do Nootropics Come From?” Thorne, 27 May 2019, www.thorne.com/take-5-daily/article/what-is-a-nootropic-and-where-do-nootropics-come-from. 
5. JoshiPranav, C., and P. Joshi. “[PDF] A REVIEW ON NATURAL MEMORY ENHANCERS (NOOTROPICS): Semantic Scholar.” Undefined, 1 Jan. 1970, www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-REVIEW-ON-NATURAL-MEMORY-ENHANCERS-%28NOOTROPICS%29-JoshiPranav-Joshi/a01af800271cf11f4ccb87c7c739d29582bea2f3. 
6. Suliman, Noor Azuin, et al. “Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Hindawi, 30 Aug. 2016, www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/4391375/. 

Pets

1. Fluyau, Dimy, and Neelambika Revadigar. “Biochemical Benefits, Diagnosis, and Clinical Risks Evaluation of Kratom.” Frontiers in Psychiatry, Frontiers Media S.A., 24 Apr. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5402527/#B5. 
2. Kemp, Paul. “Kratom Use by Pets – Anecdotal Reports by Pet Lovers.” Speciosa.org, 18 Jan. 2017, speciosa.org/kratom-use-by-pets-anecdotal-reports-by-pet-lovers/. 

 

Glossary Cited Sources

Cytokines 

Foster, J R. “The Functions of Cytokines and Their Uses in Toxicology.” International Journal of Experimental Pathology, Blackwell Science Inc, June 2001, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2517710/. 

Kinase

Cooper, John A. “Kinase.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 23 July 2018, www.britannica.com/science/kinase. 

Antioxidants

Called about this source:

https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/antioxidants/

Modulators

Buchanan, William. “Modulators.” Modulators – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, 2008, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/modulators#:~:text=A%20modulator%20is%20a%20circuit,later%20and%20the%20information%20obtained. 

Analogue

Jain, Parul. “Analogy: Additional Information.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 16 Sept. 2011, www.britannica.com/science/analogy-evolution/additional-info#history. 

Aqueous 

Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D. “What Is an Aqueous Solution? Chemistry Definition and Example.” ThoughtCo, 11 Sept. 2019, www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-aqueous-solution-604370. 

Free Radicals

Lynne Eldridge, MD. “What Exactly Are Free Radicals and Why Are They Important?” Verywell Health, 2 Feb. 2020, www.verywellhealth.com/information-about-free-radicals-2249103#:~:text=Free%20radicals%20are%20atoms%20that,other%20parts%20of%20human%20cells. 

Flatulence 

Modi, Ronak. “Belching, Bloating, and Flatulence.” American College of Gastroenterology, July 2013, gi.org/topics/belching-bloating-and-flatulence/. 

Angiogenesis

Bikfalvi, Andreas. “Angiogenesis.” Angiogenesis – an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, 2018, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/angiogenesis.